Mongolia

Days 1-2: The tour begins this morning in Ulaanbaatar, where we’ll be met at the airport by our translator and local guide, then drive by 4x4 directly to the edge of the Siberian taiga and our first birding stop of the tour: Jalman Meadows. This comfortable ger camp (pronounced ‘gear’, these round tents are known elsewhere as yurts) sits in a scenic valley surrounded by habitats ranging from riparian poplar forest to larch-covered hillsides, and is home to an array of species including Black Grouse (whose wonderful bubbling calls can be heard from our gers), Common and Oriental Cuckoos, Grey-headed and Black Woodpeckers, Red-flanked Bluetail, Amur Stonechat, Red-throated Thrush, White-cheeked Starling, Azure and Willow Tits, Yellow-browed, and Two-barred Warblers, the remarkable looking Long-tailed Rosefinch, Siberian Rubythroat and Black-faced Bunting. It is also home to the sought-after Black-billed Capercaillie, perhaps our primary target. 

We’ll have a second day around the ger camp, including more time looking for the Black-billed Capercaillie should we need it. With luck we may be able to find species such as Ural Owl or even Swinhoe’s Snipe. Each ger is equipped with a wood-burning stove, and should the weather turn inclement, there is always someone on hand to light it for you — even first thing in the morning. Nights at Jalman Meadows ger camp. 

Day 3: It’s a short drive to Gun Galuut Nature Preserve. Before we reach our ger camp, we’ll pass small lakes where we could find Stejneger’s Scoter, Garganey, and often a surprise or two. In 2018 we found the first Velvet Scoter for Mongolia and have also recorded both Smew and Falcated Duck. It can be a good area for waders, with Asian Dowitcher and Broad-billed Sandpiper being realistic targets among the more common Little Stint and Kentish Plover. This is an area for White-naped Cranes, sometimes to be seen with young chicks in tow. It is also a stopover for impressive flocks of Demoiselle Cranes that can fill the sky. A small area of riverside bushes by our gers is an excellent spot for migrants, and we’ll take time to investigate these. Lanceolated and Chinese Bush Warblers have been found here in the past, and Siberian House Martins nest within the ger camp. Beyond the camp, we’ll journey into the hills and around a large marsh area, checking that all the large white birds aren’t “just” Whooper Swans, as in some years Siberian Crane has been seen here. Mongolian Lark is common, and their distinctive song flight will become a regular feature of our future birding. We’ll also focus on mammals, with the main attraction being the world’s largest sheep, the Argali. We may also be lucky with smaller mammals such as Daurian Ground Squirrel, while thermal scoping after dark could reveal Siberian Jerboa and Daurian Hedgehog. Night at Gun Galuut Ger Camp. 

Day 4:  It’s a very long, all-day drive to the southern Gobi and the town of Dalanzadgad. We’ll break the journey with a small number of stops for the occasional leg stretch and for lunch. We’ll spend the day watching the landscape get gradually drier and transition from semi-steppes to semi-desert to desert. On the way we’ll undoubtedly see the more common residents such as Black Vulture, and we have a chance of something a little less obvious like Asian Desert Warbler or perhaps our first Mongolian Gazelles. Our ger camp will have a few trees around the grounds, and we should arrive in time for a little exploration of the grounds to see what’s about. Migrant Dusky Warblers can be almost common and Daurian Shrike often breeds on the grounds. Night in ger camp. 

Day 5: We’ll take a packed breakfast and lunch and drive to the nearby Gobi Altai and into Yolyn Am, or “Valley of the Vulture.”  We’ll spend most of the day walking along the flat valley bottom where species such as the near-endemic Kozlov’s (Mongolian) Accentor can be found alongside Brown Accentor, Chinese  Beautiful Rosefinch, Godlewski’s Bunting, Common Rock Thrush and the red-bellied form of Black Redstart. White-winged Snowfinch is abundant, and this is one of the best places in the country to see Wallcreeper. Several pairs breed, often showing at eye level for extended periods. Overhead we should see the mighty Lammergeier (Bearded Vulture) and Himalayan Vulture. The valley can also act as a migrant trap, and the stream and rough grass could hold thrushes, warblers, and buntings. For those whose interests include mammals and reptiles, this is also the best place to look for Halys Pit Viper, whose presence is often revealed by the mobbing of Isabelline Wheatears. We should also be treated to great views of Alashan Ground Squirrel and endearing Pallas’s Pika, while Siberian Ibex inhabit the cliffs above us. We’ll also be conscious that both Pallas’s Cat and Snow Leopard are possible; indeed we were treated to a Pallas’s Cat sighting here in 2023, but seeing their prey is far more likely. Back at our ger camp we’ll check the trees once more as every day brings the possibility of new arrivals. Night in ger camp.

Day 6: We’ll set off across the Gobi in search of one the most enigmatic and sought-after birds of southern Mongolia, the Oriental Plover. These stunning shorebirds breed at low density across huge areas of Mongolia, but this area seems particularly good for them, and we’ll scan the semi-desert for sight of a bright white head. Our destination is Khongoryn Els, one of the world’s largest sand dune complexes and a part of Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Park. At the foot of the main dunes there’s a small stream with grazing meadows where Common Snipe, and Common Redshank breed alongside Long-legged Buzzard and Steppe Grey Shrike. The fresh water can also act as a magnet for tired migrants who have just transited hundreds of miles of the Gobi. A nearby river that forms a boundary between the marshes and some smaller dunes is a regular haunt of the enigmatic Saxaul Sparrow, while the subtly marked Hill Pigeon may be seen dropping into drink. Night at ger camp.

Day 7: After breakfast we’ll set off for the Valley of Lakes and Orog Nuur, a large ephemeral lake at the foot of Ikh Bogd Mountain in the Gobi Altai Mountains. The journey is long and off-road, and out here we’ll feel very much in the middle of nowhere.  However birds are available for the patient; Pallas’s Sandgrouse should be seen in a few places, and we will be on the lookout for the smart Henderson’s Ground Jay. These characterful birds are found at low density but usually perch atop bushes between rapid chases along the desert floor. We’ll also be on the lookout for Black-tailed and Mongolian Gazelles, both of which are regularly seen kicking up the dust as they sprint over the desert. The lake itself has large areas of reedbed, from which Great Bitterns boom and over which North Lapwing and Black-tailed Godwit display. Our support staff for the first time will have set up our own camp on the shores of the lake and in the shadow of the mighty Ikh Bogd. It’s a special place to spend a couple of nights. Night camping at Orog Nuur.

Day 8: We’ll explore the environs of Orog Nuur, and also ascend part way up one of the canyons on the flanks of Ikh Bogd. The lakeshore could produce any of the region’s waterbirds, and we’ve had stunning views of Asian Dowitcher. Exploring the canyon may turn up Grey-necked Bunting and perhaps even a surprise, either avian or mammalian. After dinner and a sundowner we’ll be lulled to sleep by the sounds of bittern, “wikking” godwits and song flighting Richard’s Pipits. Night camping at Orog Nuur.

Day 9: Driving west along the Valley of the Lakes, we’ll go through more Saxaul forest and have additional chances for Henderson’s Ground Jay and Asian Desert Warbler. We’ll visit a small wetland that has proved productive over the years. Falcated Duck, Temminck’s Stint, Paddyfield and Oriental Reed Warblers are all possible, as are perhaps the most easterly Savi’s Warbler in the world. We discovered that this marsh seems to hold breeding Water Rails and on several occasions we’ve detected migrant Baillon’s Crake, although these will be heavily dependent on water levels and the quality of the marsh vegetation. Later we’ll continue west, eventually arriving on the shores of the largest lake in the region, the fabled Böön Tsagaan Nuur. We’ll probably have time for a short exploration of the immediate camp surroundings, as well as time for some thermal scanning of the campsite for nocturnal mammals. Night camping at Böön Tsagaan Nuur.

Day 10: We’ll have a full day to explore the shores of Böön Tsagaan Nuur. During breakfast we may be treated to a passage of Pallas’s Sandgrouse as they come to the small river near our camp to drink, and from then onwards the day should just get better. White-winged Tern should be abundant, and waterfowl might include Swan and Bar-headed Geese and Ferruginous Duck.  We’ll almost certainly see Pallas’s Gull and this is one of the most reliable sites in the world for finding Relict Gull in breeding plumage; however, despite having a good track record with them here, they are migrants and never guaranteed. This is also one of the few spots left in Mongolia for Pallas’s Fish Eagle, a couple of which usually spend the summer here. Migrant shorebirds might be numerous and could include Pacific Golden Plover and Greater Sand Plover. It can be an excellent site to get superb views of Pacific Swift and the pekinensis form of Common Swift feeding low over the marshes, and migrant passerines may also feature, from lydiae Pallas Reed Bunting trying to hide in the short grass to Red-throated or Dusky Thrushes feeding along the small river. We may also be lucky enough to find the stunning white-headed leucocephala race of Western Yellow Wagtail, the easternmost and probably rarest of the Western Yellow Wagtail forms. Every year is different, and we never know what we might find. Night camping at Böön Tsagaan Nuur.

Day 11: We’ll leave early for the Khangai Mountains. It’s another all-day drive, but we’ll stop en route for occasional birding breaks and lunch. Our destination is the Khukh Lake, a large lake high in the Khangai Mountains where the full suite of high-altitude bird specialties can be found. Night camping at Khukh Lake.

Day 12: We’ll have a full day to explore the high-altitude habitats around the magnificent lake. We are in the realm of some of Mongolia’s most special and sought after birds; Altai Snowcock display on the crags, while Hodgson’s (White-throated) Bushchat, Eversmann’s and Güldenstadt’s (White-winged) Redstarts, Altai Accentor and sushkini Asian Rosy-Finch bound around the lake shore slopes and boulder fields - occasionally being seen from the comfort of the dining tent! We may have to drive up onto a nearby plateau to seek some of these, too, but we’ll take it slowly, probably shifting our gaze between memorable birds and the stunning surroundings.  Night camping at Khukh Lake.

Day 13: Leaving the lake and alpine species behind, we’ll drive along barely discernable tracks through the Khangai to a woodland area on the north side of the mountains. Here, we’ll be exploring the woods looking for Pallas’s Rosefinch and Eversmann’s (Rufous-backed) Redstart, as well as more common woodland birds such as Pine Bunting, Olive-backed Pipit and Hume’s Warbler. More familiar species such as Tree Pipit and Brambling reach their easterly edge here. Night camping at Terkshin Tsugaan Nuur.

Day 14: After a morning birding the woodlands, we’ll begin the drive back east, through the Khangai mountains towards the bird rich Ugii Nuur. We’ll make several stops along the way among the passes to explore this very under-watched area. Night in ger camp at Ugii Nuur.

Day 15: We’ll have the entire day to explore the shores of Ugii Nuur and catch our breath from the previous long mileage days. This large lake holds good numbers of Stejneger’s Scoter and potentially numbers of other wildfowl too, such as Arctic Loon, Great Crested, Common Pochard and Tufted Duck. It’s also a reasonably regular haunt of migrant Relict Gulls, although we would need some luck to find one. The journey around the lake should reveal, as well as more unpredictable species such as Père David’s Snowfinch and Steppe Eagle which will no doubt be keeping a close eye on the many rodents. This is a good area for the unexpected, and recent records of Siberian Crane and Baer’s Pochard (including three we found here in 2024) hint at what is possible. Night in ger camp at Ugii Nuur.

Day 16: From Ugii Nuur we’ll continue east, first stopping at the roadside lake of Bayan Nuur, an excellent site for several reedbed species such as Eastern Marsh Harrier and Bearded Tit, and a regular site for Eastern Spot-billed Duck, Paddyfield Warbler and Pallas’s Reed Bunting among others. There may also be a selection of migrant waders that could include Pintail or Swinhoe’s Snipe, plus a few breeding Eastern Yellow Wagtails. We’ll then continue to the famous Hustai National Park, an area of hills, steppes and birch woodland. This is one of just three locations in Mongolia where one can see Przewalski’s Horses, ancient animals brought back from the edge of extinction many years ago through a captive breeding program. Mongolian Marmots and Brandt’s Voles scurry across the grassland, Meadow Bunting and Blyth’s Pipit sing from the hills, while Saker and Hobby hunt overhead and Golden Eagle cruise the ridge tops. Night at Hustai National Park ger camp.

Day 17: We’ll spend the morning looking for species we may have missed. Hustai is particularly good for Père David’s Snowfinch and Daurian Partridge, and the trees along the Tuul river hold White-crowned Penduline Tits as well as potentially some late migrants. We’ll then make the short journey to Ulaanbaatar, arriving in time to go to a Mongolian cultural show, complete with traditional dancing and throat singers, before having our final dinner in a local restaurant. Night in Ulaanbaatar.

Day 18: The tour concludes this morning in Ulaanbatar with transfer to the airport for homeward flights. 

2024 Narrative

Mongolia is one of the World’s unique bird tours. There are few places where you spend this much time off-road, off-grid and just following your nose when choosing which tracks to follow. It’s a truly special place, where people are scarce and wildlife is everywhere - if you stop and look! Our highlights were many, including Black-billed Capercaillies and Pallas’s Rosefinch in the forests of the north; Kozlov’s Accentor, Oriental Plover, Saxaul Sparrow and Henderson’s Ground Jay in the deserts of the south; Baer’s Pochards, White-naped Cranes, Mongolian Larks, Mongolian Short-toed Lark and Sakers in the steppes and lakes and Güldenstädt’s Redstart, Hodgson’s Bushchat, Altai Snowcock and Asian Rosy-Finch in the central mountains. All this while “glamping” in style with our amazing camp crew.

The 15^th WINGS tour of Mongolia began with us meeting up at the famous Chinggis Khan statue a few miles east of Ulaanbaatar. This, the largest equestrian statue in the World, gazes out east and I like to think he’s considering Siberian migrants, not so much World domination. Our first birding stop was just as the Boreal forest meets the steppes, some of the most southerly trees in the taiga. Here, in clearings in the larch forest, one of the main targets for the tour can be found strutting and clicking his way around. The Black-billed Capercaillie was once a truly mythical bird but can now be almost expected on a decent Mongolia itinerary. After explaining that the search could take several hours and to not dismiss distant sticks as simply sticks, we were all amazed when our first strode out from behind a tree within 20 meters of the cars! After enjoying him for a while, a clicking sound deeper in the forest drew us and resulted in one of the sights of the tour - a lekking capercaillie! With its head held high and tail fanned, it strutted around its chosen lek site for several minutes, giving us ample opportunities to drink in every detail. These birds seem completely unconcerned by our presence, but even so we kept a respectful distance. On top of the clicking of the caper, we were treated to the song of a few Red-flanked Bluetails, eventually managing to see one.

Moving onwards to our Ger camp for the next two days, the forests and scrub around Jalman Meadows produced many fine offerings. Oriental Cuckoo eventually showed, as did Siberian Rubythroats, a brief Red-throated Thrush, a lovely male “Siberian” Long-tailed Rosefinch and several each of Blyth’s Pipit, Amur Stonechat, Daurian Redstart and Black-faced Bunting. The Black Grouse lek next to our camp failed to produce a sighting this year, but the evocative bubbling calls drifted up the hillside to us nonetheless.

From here it was a short drive to our next destination, the lake, marsh and hills of Gun Galuut. Here we encountered our first ducks and shorebirds of the tour, including a rather distant Smew and a small group of Stejneger’s Scoters. Flocks of White-winged Black terns graced the wetlands, and it was delightful to see a few pairs of White-naped Cranes with newly hatched chicks in tow. Unfortunately, the harsh winter meant that the Argali sheep had departed for distant pastures, but a Saker feeding chicks on a nest was ample compensation. The bushes at the camp here often produce migrants, and this year was no exception. A mega flock of 32 Hawfinch was unexpected, but Asian Brown and Dark-sided Flycatchers were also present, along with a handful of Thick-billed, Pallas’s and Two-barred Warblers. The Siberian House Martins were once again nesting on the reception building, allowing for close inspection of their diagnostic white upper tail coverts.

Our long drive south from Gun Galuut to Dalanzadgad was indeed long, but the early stages were through some quality steppes habitat that produced our first Mongolian Gazelle, along with lots of Mongolian Larks fleeing the track, flashing white wing panels resplendent. When steppes gave way to semi-steppes, then semi-desert, we finally arrived at our ger camp near Dalanzadgad. Here, Daurian Shrikes nested in the camp grounds and Hoopoes called at dawn. Our reason for being down here was the nearby valley of Yolyn Am, a deep gorge into one of the final emergences of the Gobi Altai before they dwindle into the desert. The main avian target here is

Kozlov’s Accentor, and one showed admirably for us alongside hordes of stupidly tame White-winged Snowfinches, Eastern Black Redstarts, Brown Accentors, a Sulphur-bellied Warbler, many Chinese Beautiful Rosefinches (whose taxonomy and identification is still controversial but seem to conform best to Chinese rather than Himalayan), Crag Martins and, of course, the eponymous Lammergeiers and Himalayan Griffons - Yolyn Am meaning ‘valley of the vultures’. A frustratingly brief Wallcreeper was seen by some but could not be relocated after it flew around a rock face. A nearby valley gave us a gorgeously barred Barred Warbler, as well as a Daurian Shrike bringing food to its nest and a pair of Sakers cavorting in the skies. Finally, a brief look around some trees in the centre of Dalanzadgad produced a tree full of Pallas’s (Leaf) Warblers, and a tired looking but very welcome Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler skulking under some bushes.         

The next day was one looked forward to by many, as this was to be Oriental Plover Day. These gorgeous plovers seem to just spring from the desert, their beacon-like white heads glowing from afar. That said, they are frustratingly low density and require either a large dose of luck or a bit of knowledge on the best places to find them. Thankfully, we have found a good area for them and were treated to two males for an extended period, doing their thing. One even indulged in a spot of display flight as it finally disappeared into the distance. From here we indulged in a spot of migrant watching near Bulgan, before heading off to find the local Snow Leopard man in one of the more surreal episodes of the tour. Finding no one home at his ger, we headed off into the desert, eventually seeing a man on a motorbike who just happened to be our guy! He and his wife gladly agreed to show us the leopard’s cave, jumped in our jeeps and off we went into a nearby range of hills. Unfortunately, there were no leopards home this time, it’s always a long shot to see the ghost of the Gobi, but still, it was a privilege to know that somewhere near they may well have been a Snow Leopard watching us eat our lunch within a few meters of his lair.

Onwards and westwards we went, to our next camp at the Hongorïn Els - a long series of mighty sand dunes stretching through the desert. Dawn the next day saw us at a small corral near the camp, and three male Saxaul Sparrows and a delightfully confiding Desert Wheatear were our pre-breakfast entertainment, along with our first real looks at Pallas’s Sandgrouse flying around.

From here it was a long drive through the desert to our next camp at the large reed-fringed lake of Orog Nuur. The journey provided an all-to-brief Henderson’s Ground Jay for some of the group, but it was to be another few days before everyone had satisfactory views of this enigmatic bird. Orog Nuur was surprisingly dry and bird free. It’s an ephemeral lake but given that the surrounding area was much wetter than usual, we were left wondering what strange hydrological factors were at play that kept the marshes wet but the lake dry. We had great views of a Red-necked Phalarope here, and the wicky-wicky calls of Black-tailed Godwits was a delight to hear as ever. We spent the whole of the next day slowly ascending a long canyon on the flanks of Ikh Bogd, taking in the many Pied Wheatears, Mongolian Finches and others on our way to the alpine plateau. Up here, the weather was decidedly snowy, but we managed great views of Güldenstädt’s Redstart. The take-home memory from Ikh Bogd however, were simply the views. It’s known as the “many-coloured mountain” in Mongolian, so we named it the Painted Mountain. It seemed appropriate, with a gorgeous palette of colours over the hills as they faded into the distance.

Leaving Orog Nuur behind, we had a fruitless search for ground jays but did find a couple of Steppe Grey Shrikes, then made lunch at a small marsh part of the way to Boon Tsagaan Nuur. Here, the reeds were lush and a good number of ducks were present, including our first Falcated Duck. Slavonian (Horned) Grebes were also present, as were a few pairs of Oriental Reed Warbler singing from the reeds. Moving on to Boon Tsagaan Nuur, we moved into some small log cabins for two nights rather than our tents. This proved a good move as the nights were incredibly windy here. The first evening here saw us fail to find a Baer’s Pochard that had been present for a week or so prior to us arriving, but we did find an Eastern Cattle Egret, a Brown-headed Gull and a gorgeous if distant Pallas’s Fish Eagle. With the whole of the next day planned at the lake, we enjoyed the large numbers of waterbirds on offer including Pallas’s Gulls, Swan Geese and another Falcated Duck (this one keeping company with a hybrid Falcated Duck x Gadwall), flocks of White-winged Black Terns contained several Whiskered Terns, Ferruginous Ducks and three vagrant Black-crowned Night Herons. Some of us decided to spend the afternoon hunting for Henderson’s Ground Jay nearby, and thankfully this proved a great move with four birds being found, as well as a handful of Asian Desert Warblers. Meanwhile, those of us at the lake enjoyed the huge Cormorant colony complete with a nesting pair of Whooper Swans, a Smew, a flock of seven Mute Swans, four Greater Sand Plovers and some incredible views of Pallas’s Gulls checking us out.

An early start on the 5^th June was called for, as this was to be a long driving day, all the way to Khukh Nuur, high in the Khangai Mountains. The drive may have been long, but once again the scenery made the time positively fly by. We had lunch in a wide valley near the village of Gurvenbulag, then ascended through the valley to Khukh Nuur. A flock of migrating Siberian House Martins drew our attention, as did a small group of Hill Pigeons and a gaggle of Black Vultures on a carcass.

Once at our camp spot, the call of Altai Snowcock immediately flowed down from above us. Scanning the cliffs, we located 5 of them, eventually all of them interacting and flying across the cliff face to meet each other. A wonderful experience! Surprisingly, we would not hear them call again in the following two mornings, although a pair were located high above the camp simply by dedicated scanning. Also here were Eversmann’s Redstarts, a pair of Asian Rosy-Finches, a lost-looking Red-throated Thrush, several Pallas’s Reed Buntings, Dusky Warblers and Hume’s Warblers. A couple of male Stonechats were interesting in that they may have been Siberian rather than Amur, the area where they meet is very close to here. Our main task the following day was to ascend up onto the plateau above the lake and search for Hodgson’s Bushchats, and very successful we were too! At least two pairs were located, and seeing this, the ultimate Saxicola, on its remote and stunning breeding grounds is always a highlight.

Our journey continued north and through the mountain passes to the Terkhiin Tsagaan Nuur and its surrounding woodlands. Here, in really stunning surroundings, some of us managed brief views of a female Pallas’s Rosefinch, along with many breeding Common Rosefinches, nesting Red-throated Thush, singing Siberian Rubythroats and such unexpected western species as Tree Pipit and Mistle Thrush. The number of Hume’s Warblers here was also unexpected, they were seemingly everywhere! A bonus pair of Eversmann’s Redstarts gave closer views than we had managed at Khukh Nuur and the local Stonechats once again looked to be Siberian rather than Amur. It was soon time to move on once again, and an afternoon drive to Uggi Nuur saw us driving through some nice steppes. Here we were firmly back in lark territory, and Mongolian Larks abounded with their striking wing patterns. Upland Buzzards were also prominent, and a nice pair of Pere David’s Snowfinches finally got on to everyone’s life lists.

The next day proved to be one of the highlights of the tour. We had the whole day to explore the lake, and after enjoying large duck flocks at the western end that included three Falcated Ducks, and a flock of Common Cranes that had three White-naped tagging along, we found a saline lake that held hundreds of nesting Mongolian Gulls, Avocets and Black-necked (Eared) Grebes, along with a large amount of Pochard. After lunch, we checked out a bay of the main lake, separated from it by a gravel bar. On here were a large number of Pochards, several Smew and best of all, three drake Baer’s Pochards! This critically endangered duck is often seen in Mongolia in the spring, but usually in the far east. Its rapid decline has turned it into one of the rarest birds in Asia, and we were truly privileged to see three together, interacting with four Ferruginous Ducks. From here, we drove east, stopping for a successful search for Mongolian Short-toed Lark at one of the few sites for them west of Ulaanbaatar.

Our arrival at Hustai NP saw us head straight for a nearby valley where we had distant but evocative views of Przewalski’s Horses, a rather mournful-looking Wapiti and a nice female Amur Falcon close to a likely nest site. The following morning, our final day, we went up the main horse valley and scored our main target of Meadow Bunting, although Daurian Partridge were to prove invisible to us. Perhaps a result of the harsh winter? A superfast Mongolian Gazelle amazed us as it disappeared into the steppes, and then that was that. The relatively short drive back to Ulaanbaatar was uneventful and we enjoyed our final evening together watching the wonderful “Tumen Ekh ensemble” of traditional music and dancing and reminiscing of our time spent in this truly unique country and landscape.

- Paul French

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